Source ：https://mediawell.ssrc.org/literature-reviews/defining-disinformation/versions/1-1/
（ I only read the first title ）

Defining “disinformation” and related concepts

One of the most urgent tasks facing scholars and the public is to jointly define false information and related topics in the academic field . just as Jack（2017）、Wardle、Derakhshan（2017） Pointed out , False information scholars 、 remember 、 Policymakers and other workers in the field of political communication use a large number of subtly different but identical definitions .Karlsen（2016） Pointed out that , There is no overall theoretical framework for studying the concept of influence , It's just a patchwork of methodologies from various social science disciplines .Wardle and Derakhshan Further believe that , The lack of consensus and the strictness of the definition of terms led to the early stagnation in the field of false information research .MediaWell In addition to citing peer-reviewed academic publications , It also cites the report 、 Conference papers and other materials , But this one may be more than most . A brief description of these types of content , Please refer to our FAQ.

Wardle and Derakhshan I'm right disinformation( And extended to misinformation) The definition of in an attempt to understand and alleviate these situations 、 Support from activists and non-profit organizations . In their explanation ,disinformation It's false , Deliberately created information , To hurt a person , Social groups , Organization or country . This is one of three types of content that leads to information confusion . The other is misinformation, They are defined as false information , But no intention of causing harm , and malinformation, Factual information release , To slander or harm a person or institution , Such as doxing,leaks, And some types of hate speech (2017,20).

In this expression ,disinformation and misinformation The key difference is the question of intention . manufacture disinformation People consciously spread false or misleading information . On the other hand , although misinformation At first it might be disinformation, But when spreading , People are indifferent to its true value , Or didn't realize it was fake . Error messages can be spread for entertainment 、 Education or provocation . therefore , A false statement or content may span from disinformation To misinformation The fuzzy boundary of , And then back again , It depends on its various sources and their views on the authenticity of the narrative .

Wardle and Derakhshan Not the only one who distinguishes between false and false information based on intention . Other scholars have put forward similar definitions , Such as Floridi (2011), Søe(2018), and Hwang(2017), He included intentional behavior in the definition of false information .Bennett and Livingston(2018, 124) False information is also described as intended , However, its form is limited to intentional false information transmitted in the form of news stories or simulated documentaries , To advance political goals . although Jack(2017, 3) take disinformation Defined as deliberately false or misleading , This means intention , But she warned , The definition based on intention will lead to the power imbalance between producers and critics of false information . She wrote , Due to professional standards and legal restrictions , Journalists and social scientists tend to avoid being accused of deliberately trying to . Rumor mongers have no such restrictions , For potential critics such as journalists , These professional and legal threats remain .

Although social scientists have some choices , But it's also hard for them to assess their intentions . Ethnographic observation 、 Surveys and experiments capture sharing disinformation、misinformation and factual information The motive of , All this helps to assess intentions , But it's still hard to judge . So it looks like , How useful is it to rely on definitions that are difficult to measure ？ The problem of intention is further complicated by the casual style popular on the English Internet , Especially in those who declare intention and deny intention at the same time . One of these styles is often called irony .Marwick(2018) Pointed out that , Irony as a power of expression and emotion , Dominate native Internet content , Think it will mislead the distinction based on intention .

Skyrms(2010) take disinformation The definition of ( Although he used the word deception ) Based on the cost of the receiver and the benefit of the sender , Avoiding the problem of intention . In the face of Skyrms In the criticism of definition ,Fallis(2015) I think this definition is too narrow , Because of some false information , Such as false praise , It may actually benefit the recipient .Fallis The definition of depends on “ function ” The concept of , It is the quality of a thing , Whether through evolution or the designer's intention . His short definition is :disinformation It is misleading information with the function of misleading others (2015,413).Fallis Think , This approach includes both deliberately misleading disinformation, Like a lie , It also includes information sources that benefit from misleading , Such as conspiracy theory or post .

Other things about mis and disinformation And the proposed definition of related topics also involves other features .Gelfert(2018, 103) Talking about fake news as disinformation When a subset of , The difference of false news lies in the systematic characteristics inherent in the design of the source and mechanism of false news .Gelfert Think , These systematic features inhibit critical reasoning and inquiry , And encourage users to further disseminate these contents . although Gelfert The expression of still depends on intention , But one that includes the characteristics of source and channel systems disinformation The definition of may have potential .

For readers outside academia , These about disinformation and misinformation The debate and subtle differences seem entirely academic . However , The political climate in many parts of the world clearly shows that , Different groups interpret the same set of facts very differently , And reveals the social environment 、 How identity and background form different epistemological theories about knowledge within and between social environments . That's not to say , Scholars and researchers should be content to meet their esoteric definitions , But it does not reflect the understanding of broader social factors , On the contrary .Nielsen and Graves(2017) Provides a useful reminder , scholars 、 Researchers and policymakers think about these terms and concepts very differently from the mass media audience . In their live report , Through a survey of fake news and a series of focus groups ( We will discuss this concept further below ) Reported the findings . They pointed out that , News consumers believe that the difference between fake news and news is only a difference in degree , Not a clear distinction . Their respondents see fake news as a different kind of information , Also admit that the word has been weaponized .Nielsen and Graves Think , Academic and policy debates ignore audience considerations , The audience expressed deeper dissatisfaction with many public information sources , Including news media and politicians and platform companies (2017,1,7). This view reflects a broader social problem , And scholars 、 The disconnect between policymakers and other industry people . We hope MediaWell And similar projects can start translating academic knowledge for the public , So as to fill this gap , Also for scholars 、 Provide a portal for policymakers and technicians , Share information that reflects how people understand political information in their daily lives .

It's also important to remember ,disinformation The existence of has nothing to do with the media , Even if disinformation Creation of 、 The way of sharing and receiving may be seriously affected by the media . in other words , False information is not limited to text . It exists in the form of video and audio , Such as YouTube Videos and podcasts , Of course, it can be spread by word of mouth . Visual disinformation is particularly problematic , Because it may be more persuasive , It's also harder to expose . so far , Much research and correction work has focused on the text (Wardle and Derakhshan 2017).

So what conclusion do we have in the definition ? just as Fallis(2015, 416) In the face of Floridi(2012) As discussed in your response ,disinformation It may not be a perfect definition , Maybe it's just disinformation Typical example , Different things are closer or farther from these prototypes .

However , We know that social actors are creating disinformation, And it takes disinformation and misinformation Spread in society in the form of ( Suppose we accept some difference between them ). From this point of view , Continue to discuss dis and misinformation Probably the most useful , Or use a broad term , Such as problem information, Jack(2017) Use it to contain misinformation and disinformation, They have different intentions . In order to Jack、Wardle and Derakhshan Wait for the consensus of the author ,MediaWell The project will temporarily disinformation Defined as : A rhetorical strategy that deliberately creates and disseminates false or misleading information , The purpose is to confuse 、 influence 、 damage 、 Mobilize or demobilize the audience . Of the same species is ,misinformation Can be defined as unintentional propagation 、 Easy to confuse 、 influence 、 damage 、 False or misleading information that mobilizes or dismisses the audience . We recognize the limitations of the difference between intention based error information and error information , And suggest that they be considered together , To allow their variability . Risk some clumsy sentences , We try to talk about error messages , Unless the details of the communication are known